By Suleman Lazarus, PhD & Mark Button
As the world becomes increasingly connected, digital fraud has evolved from a local problem into a global one. West Africa, particularly Ghana and Nigeria, is witnessing the rise of “hustle kingdoms” – informal academies that train individuals to carry out digital scams.
The term “hustle kingdoms” originated from online scammers themselves, used to describe their training centres. These environments are glorified in certain pockets of popular culture. The hustle kingdoms operate both online and offline, blending virtual training with in-person sessions.
Real-life scams linked to “graduates” of these academies include various scams such as online romance fraud and business email compromise scams.
Similar setups existed in the 1980s and 1990s under the name “business centres”. Back then, a “chairman”, typically a university graduate or dropout, would rent an office, hire a secretary, and recruit junior scammers, or “boys”. Their task was to target victims worldwide via postal letters, telephone calls, and faxes. The “chairman” provided funding and logistics while trainees honed their scamming skills.
These academies, once local training hubs, have evolved into global threats. They now export their skills worldwide, fuelling more persistent and widespread fraud. The United States alone lost about US$50 billion in 2023 to online scams, many of which are linked to west African fraudsters. This figure only represents reported losses – many more crimes go unreported.
Similar to the “Sakawa Boys” (Ghanaian online scammers) and the “Yahoo Boys” (Nigerian online scammers), “hustle kingdom” fraudsters sometimes justify their actions as seeking restitution for past injustices, viewing themselves as descendants of victims of the slave trade, economic exploitation and colonialism, while westerners are seen as descendants of colonialists. This framing suggests that their online scams are, in part, a response to historical wrongs.
They also use supernatural strategies – “juju magic” – to manipulate and defraud victims.
Nigerian scam enterprises are often linked to confraternities, secret or semi-secret organisations such as the “Black Axe”, an organised crime group originally formed in Nigerian universities. In contrast, Ghanaian cyber criminals are less often associated with organised criminal groups.
As these fraudsters expand their operations, online romance scams and sextortion cases have surged in the United States and Europe, raising alarm.
Online romance scams involve fraudsters creating fake online personas to establish emotional relationships with victims, deceiving them into sending money or personal information. Sextortion occurs when perpetrators coerce victims into providing sexually explicit content and then threaten to release it unless the victims meet financial or other demands.
As scholars who have researched and written about cybercrime issues in west Africa, we want to provide readers with a nuanced perspective on a complex phenomenon. Thus, we combine on-the-ground insights with global analysis, highlighting the need for coordinated action to combat these crimes.
Hustle kingdoms
The term “hustle kingdom” or “HK” holds meaning within these cybercriminal training networks. “HK” also stands for “headquarters” or “high kingdom”. It represents a central command centre with a hierarchical structure for training new members, functioning like an online fraud academy. This structure is important during the training phase but tends to dissolve after members graduate.
“HK” is more than a physical location; it acts as a conceptual space within the network. Here, novices learn various fraud techniques and job-seeking strategies from globally contributed insights. Thus, “HK” serves as a knowledge hub, spreading tactics across the network.
The concept has gained traction in street-level parlance, indicating its acceptance and use beyond organised cyber fraud. HK emphasises educational and strategic aspects over territorial concerns, underscoring such organisations’ decentralised and adaptable nature. Factors such as socio-economic pressures and the allure of quick wealth drive individuals to join these institutions.
Sextortion and romance scams
The graduates of these academies are contributing to the alarming rise in online romance scams and sextortion cases, particularly in the United States and Europe. There are no clearly defined crime statistics to illustrate this rise but one organisation which receives reports related to children reported 26,718 cases of sextortion in 2023, a jump from 10,731 reports in 2022 and up from 139 reports in 2021.
These scams are not isolated incidents but part of a larger, organised effort originating from west Africa and involving participants from multiple nations, including criminal actors in western countries. Studies, such as interviews with an alleged leader of a cybercriminal group affiliated with Black Axe, demonstrate the international scope of these operations.
Stopping online fraud
Tackling this issue requires urgent attention at both local and global levels. There are no quick and simple solutions, but broadly, there are three main areas of action required.
First, there needs to be much more cooperation between law enforcement from countries that are the main targets of these scammers and west African law enforcement agencies. The aim should be not just to apprehend the main criminal actors, but to disrupt the activity.
Second, the social and economic factors driving young people into this “industry” need to be addressed.
Finally, much more needs to be done to protect potential victims from these online scams through more effective and targeted fraud prevention measures.
The above, written by Suleman Lazarus, PhD (Visiting Fellow, London School of Economics and Political Science) & Mark Button (Professor of Security and Fraud, University of Portsmouth), was first published in The Conservation.